Seeds of Change, Readings on Cultural Exchange After 1492 Pdf

Exchanges of people, diseases, plants, animals, and minerals between the Americas and the Old Earth

The Columbian exchange, besides known as the Columbian interchange, was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, bolt, culture, human populations, applied science, diseases, and ideas between the New Earth (the Americas) in the Western Hemisphere, and the Old World (Afro-Eurasia) in the Eastern Hemisphere, in the belatedly 15th and following centuries.^[1] It is named after the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus and is related to the European colonization and global trade following his 1492 voyage.^[1] Some of the exchanges were purposeful; some were accidental or unintended. Communicable diseases of Old Globe origin resulted in an 80 to 95 percent reduction in the number of Indigenous peoples of the Americas from the 15th century onwards, most severely in the Caribbean.^[1] The cultures of both hemispheres were significantly impacted by the migration of people (both gratuitous and enslaved) from the Old World to the New. African slaves and European colonists replaced the Ethnic populations beyond the Americas. The number of Africans coming to the New World was far greater than the number of Europeans coming to the New World in the first iii centuries subsequently Columbus.^{[2] [3]}

The new contacts amid the global population resulted in the interchange of a wide diversity of crops and livestock, which supported increases in food production and population in the Old World. American crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, cassava, sweet potatoes, and chili peppers became of import crops effectually the globe. Erstwhile Globe rice, wheat, sugar cane, and livestock, amid other crops, became of import in the New World. American-produced silvery flooded the world and became the standard metallic used in coinage, peculiarly in Regal Red china.

The term was get-go used in 1972 by the American historian and professor Alfred West. Crosby in his ecology history volume The Columbian Exchange.^{[1] [4]} It was chop-chop adopted by other historians and journalists.

Etymology [edit]

In 1972 Alfred West. Crosby, an American historian at the Academy of Texas at Austin, published The Columbian Exchange,^[4] and subsequent volumes within the same decade. His primary focus was mapping the biological and cultural transfers that occurred between the Old and New Worlds. He studied the effects of Columbus'southward voyages between the two – specifically, the global improvidence of crops, seeds, and plants from the New World to the Quondam, which radically transformed agriculture in both regions. His research made a lasting contribution to the way scholars understand the diverseness of gimmicky ecosystems that arose due to these transfers.^[v]

The term has become popular among historians and journalists and has since been enhanced with Crosby's later volume in three editions, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900. Charles C. Isle of mann, in his book 1493 further expands and updates Crosby's original research.^[vi]

Background [edit]

The weight of scientific prove is that humans showtime came to the New Globe from Siberia thousands of years ago. There is little boosted show of contacts betwixt the peoples of the Onetime World and those of the New World, although the literature speculating on pre-Columbian trans-oceanic journeys is extensive. The showtime inhabitants of the New World brought with them domestic dogs and, possibly, a container, the calabash, both of which persisted in their new home.^[seven] The medieval explorations, visits, and cursory residence of the Norsemen in Greenland, Newfoundland, and Vinland in the late tenth century and 11th century had no known impact on the Americas.^[eight] Many scientists take that possible contact between Polynesians and littoral peoples in South America almost 1200 resulted in genetic similarities and the adoption by Polynesians of an American crop, the sweetness potato.^[9] However, information technology was only with the offset voyage of the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus and his crew to the Americas in 1492 that the Columbian substitution began, resulting in major transformations in the cultures and livelihoods of the peoples in both hemispheres.^[1]

Diseases [edit]

The first manifestation of the Columbian exchange may have been the spread of syphilis from the native people of the Caribbean Sea to Europe. The history of syphilis has been well-studied, but the origin of the disease remains a discipline of argue.^[10] There are ii primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the Americas by the coiffure of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized.^[11] The first written descriptions of the affliction in the Former World came in 1493.^[12] The first big outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494–1495 among the army of Charles VIII during its invasion of Naples.^{[11] [13] [xiv] [xv]} Many of the crew members who had served with Columbus had joined this regular army. After the victory, Charles'southward largely mercenary ground forces returned to their respective homes, thereby spreading "the Slap-up Pox" beyond Europe and killing up to 5 million people.^{[16] [17]}

The Columbian exchange of diseases in the other direction was past far deadlier. The peoples of the Americas had had no contact to European and African diseases and little or no immunity.^[18] An epidemic of swine influenza beginning in 1493 killed many of the Taino people inhabiting Caribbean islands. The pre-contact population of the island of Hispanola was probably at least 500,000, just by 1526, fewer than 500 were nevertheless alive. Spanish exploitation was part of the cause of the near-extinction of the native people.^[19] In 1518, smallpox was showtime recorded in the Americas and became the deadliest imported European illness. Twoscore per centum of the 200,000 people living in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, later Mexico City, are estimated to have died of smallpox in 1520 during the war of the Aztecs with conquistador Hernán Cortés.^[20] Epidemics, possibly of smallpox and spread from Cardinal America, decimated the population of the Inca Empire a few years before the inflow of the Spanish.^[21] The ravages of European diseases and Spanish exploitation reduced the Mexican population from an estimated 20 million to barely more than a one thousand thousand in the 16th century.^[22] The indigenous population of Peru decreased from about ix one thousand thousand in the pre-Columbian era to 600,000 in 1620.^[23] Scholars Nunn and Qian guess that 80–95 percentage of the Native American population died in epidemics within the first 100–150 years following 1492. The deadliest Old World diseases in the Americas were smallpox, measles, whooping cough, chicken pox, bubonic plague, typhus, and malaria.^[24]

African slavery [edit]

The Atlantic slave trade consisted of the involuntary immigration of xi.7 million Africans, primarily from West Africa, to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries, far outnumbering the about 3.iv meg Europeans who migrated, well-nigh voluntarily, to the New Globe between 1492 and 1840.^[25] The prevalence of African slaves in the New World was related to the demographic decline of New World peoples and the need of European colonists for labor. The Africans had greater immunities to Former Earth diseases than the New Earth peoples, and were less likely to die from disease. The journey of enslaved Africans from Africa to America is unremarkably known equally the "middle passage".^[26]

Enslaved Africans helped shape an emerging African-American civilisation in the New World. They participated in both skilled and unskilled labor. Their descendants gradually developed an ethnicity that drew from the numerous African tribes as well as European nationalities.^{[27] [28]} The descendants of African slaves make up a majority of the population in some Caribbean countries, notably Republic of haiti and Jamaica, and a sizeable minority in almost American countries.^[29]

A movement for the abolition of slavery, known as abolitionism, developed in Europe and the Americas during the 18th century. The efforts of abolitionists eventually led to the abolition of slavery (the British Empire in 1833, the United states in 1865, and Brazil in 1888).

Silvery [edit]

The New World produced 80 percent or more of the world's silver in the 16th and 17th centuries, about of it at Potosí in Bolivia, only also in Mexico. The founding of the city of Manila in the Philippines in 1571 for the purpose of facilitating merchandise in New Globe silver with China for silk, porcelain, and other luxury products has been chosen past scholars the "origin of globe trade."^[xxx] China was the globe's largest economy and in the 1570s adopted argent (which it did non produce in any quantity) equally its medium of exchange. Cathay had picayune interest in buying foreign products and so merchandise consisted of large quantities of silver coming into China to pay for the Chinese products that foreign countries desired. Silver fabricated it to Manila either through Europe and by ship effectually the Cape of Good Hope or beyond the Pacific Body of water in Spanish galleons from the Mexican port of Acapulco. From Manila the silvery was transported onward to China on Portuguese and later Dutch ships. Silver was too smuggled from Potosi to Buenos Aires, Argentine republic to pay slavers for African slaves imported into the New Earth.^[31]

The enormous quantities of silver imported into Spain and Cathay created vast wealth but also caused inflation and the value of silver to decline. In 16th century Cathay, 6 ounces of silvery was equal to the value of ane ounce of gilded. In 1635, it took 13 ounces of silvery to equal in value one ounce of gilt. Taxes in both countries were assessed in the weight of argent, not its value. The shortage of revenue due to the reject in the value of silver may have contributed indirectly to the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644. Also, silver from the Americas financed Espana's attempt to conquer other countries in Europe, and the reject in the value of silvery left Spain unpleasing in the maintenance of its earth-wide empire and retreating from its aggressive policies in Europe after 1650.^{[32] [33]}

Effects [edit]

Crops [edit]

Because of the new trading resulting from the Columbian substitution, several plants native to the Americas have spread around the earth, including potatoes, maize, tomatoes, and tobacco.^[34] Before 1500, potatoes were non grown exterior of South America. By the 18th century, they were cultivated and consumed widely in Europe and had get of import crops in both India and North America. Potatoes eventually became an important staple of the diet in much of Europe, contributing to an estimated 25% of the population growth in Afro-Eurasia between 1700 and 1900.^[35] Many European rulers, including Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Dandy of Russia, encouraged the cultivation of the white potato.^[36]

Maize and cassava, introduced past the Portuguese from Due south America in the 16th century,^[37] gradually replaced sorghum and millet every bit Africa'south most important food crops.^[38] Spanish colonizers of the 16th-century introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and sweet potatoes, and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia.^[39] On a larger calibration, the introduction of potatoes and maize to the Quondam World "resulted in caloric and nutritional improvements over previously existing staples" throughout the Eurasian landmass,^[twoscore] enabling more varied and abundant nutrient product.^[41]

Tomatoes, which came to Europe from the New Earth via Spain, were initially prized in Italy mainly for their ornamental value. But starting in the 19th century, tomato sauces became typical of Neapolitan cuisine and, ultimately, Italian cuisine in general.^[42] Coffee (introduced in the Americas circa 1720) from Africa and the Middle East and sugarcane (introduced from the Indian subcontinent) from the Spanish West Indies became the main export commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to Bharat by the Portuguese, chili and potatoes from South America take become an integral part of their cuisine.^[43]

Because crops traveled but often their endemic fungi did non, for a express time yields were higher in their new lands. Night & Gent 2001 term this the " Yield honeymoon ". Nevertheless, as globalization has continued the Columbian Exchange of pathogens has continued and crops have declined back toward their endemic yields – the honeymoon is ending.^[44]

Rice [edit]

Rice was another crop that became widely cultivated during the Columbian exchange. As the demand in the New World grew, so did the noesis of how to cultivate it. The two primary species used were Oryza glaberrima and Oryza sativa, originating from West Africa and Southeast Asia, respectively. European planters in the New World relied upon the skills of enslaved Africans to cultivate both species.^[45] Georgia, South Carolina, Cuba and Puerto Rico were major centers of rice production during the colonial era. Enslaved Africans brought their knowledge of water control, milling, winnowing, and other agrarian practices to the fields. This widespread knowledge amidst enslaved Africans eventually led to rice becoming a staple dietary item in the New Globe.^{[5] [46]}

Fruits [edit]

Citrus fruits and grapes were brought to the Americas from the Mediterranean. At kickoff planters struggled to adapt these crops to the climates in the New World, only by the tardily 19th century they were cultivated more consistently.^[47]

Bananas were introduced into the Americas in the 16th century by Portuguese sailors who came across the fruits in West Africa, while engaged in commercial ventures and the slave trade. Bananas were consumed in minimal amounts in the Americas as late as the 1880s. The U.Due south. did non see major increases in banana consumption until big plantations were established in the Caribbean area.^[48]

Tomatoes [edit]

It took iii centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become a widely accepted nutrient item. Tobacco, potatoes, chili peppers, tomatillos, and tomatoes are all members of the nightshade family. Similar to some European Nightshade varieties, tomatoes and potatoes tin exist harmful or even lethal, if the wrong part of the plant is consumed in excess. Physicians in the 16th-century had good reason to be wary that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous; they suspected it of generating "melancholic humours".^{[ citation needed ]}

In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no tape exists of anyone consuming them at this time. Nonetheless, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez nigh Madrid, nether the patronage of Philip II of Kingdom of spain, wrote, "it is said [tomatoes] are good for sauces". In spite of these comments, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, but rarely for culinary use.^{[ citation needed ]} On October 31, 1548, the tomato was given its kickoff proper name anywhere in Europe when a firm steward of Cosimo I de' Medici, Duke of Florence, wrote to the De' Medici's private secretarial assistant that the basket of pomi d'oro "had arrived safely". At this time, the label pomi d'oro was also used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.^[49] In the early years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italia. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovan Vettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought but for their dazzler" and were grown only in gardens or blossom beds. Tomatoes were grown in aristocracy town and country gardens in the fifty years or then following their inflow in Europe, and were only occasionally depicted in works of art.^{[ citation needed ]} The practice of using love apple sauce with pasta developed only in the late nineteenth century. Today around 32,000 acres (thirteen,000 ha) of tomatoes are cultivated in Italian republic.^[49]

Livestock [edit]

Native Americans learned to use horses to hunt bison, dramatically expanding their hunting range.

Initially at to the lowest degree, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went in one direction, from Europe to the New Globe, every bit the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. Horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, large dogs, cats, and bees were rapidly adopted past native peoples for transport, food, and other uses.^[50] One of the outset European exports to the Americas, the horse, changed the lives of many Native American tribes. The mountain tribes shifted to a nomadic lifestyle, based on hunting bison on horseback. They largely gave up settled agriculture. Horse culture was adopted gradually past Nifty Plains Indians. The existing Plains tribes expanded their territories with horses, and the animals were considered and so valuable that horse herds became a measure of wealth.^[51] While mesoamerican peoples (Mayas in particular) already proficient apiculture,^[52] producing wax and beloved from a multifariousness of bees (such as Melipona or Trigona),^[53] European bees (Apis mellifera)—more productive, delivering a beloved with less h2o content and assuasive for an easier extraction from beehives—were introduced in New Spain, becoming an important part of farming product.^[54]

The furnishings of the introduction of European livestock on the environments and peoples of the New Globe were non e'er positive. In the Caribbean, the proliferation of European animals consumed native fauna and undergrowth, changing habitat. If free ranging, the animals ofttimes damaged conucos, plots managed past indigenous peoples for subsistence.^[55]

The Mapuche of Araucanía were fast to adopt the horse from the Spanish, and improve their military capabilities as they fought the Arauco War against Castilian colonizers.^{[56] [57]} Until the arrival of the Spanish, the Mapuches had largely maintained chilihueques (llamas) as livestock. The Castilian introduction of sheep caused some competition between the two domesticated species. Anecdotal testify of the mid-17th century prove that by and so both species coexisted but that the sheep far outnumbered the llamas. The decline of llamas reached a point in the tardily 18th century when merely the Mapuche from Mariquina and Huequén next to Angol raised the creature.^[58] In the Chiloé Archipelago the introduction of pigs past the Spanish proved a success. They could feed on the abundant shellfish and algae exposed past the large tides.^[58]

In the other direction, the turkey, republic of guinea squealer, and Muscovy duck were New World animals that were transferred to Europe.^[59]

Medicines [edit]

European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New Globe discovery of quinine, the starting time effective treatment for malaria. Europeans suffered from this affliction, but some ethnic populations had developed at least partial resistance to information technology. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes amongst sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause sickle-jail cell illness.^[60] The resistance of sub-Saharan Africans to malaria in the southern Usa and the Caribbean area contributed greatly to the specific character of the Africa-sourced slavery in those regions.^[61]

Similarly, yellow fever is idea to accept been brought to the Americas from Africa via the Atlantic slave trade. Considering it was owned in Africa, many people at that place had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did African-descended persons when exposed to yellowish fever in Africa and the Americas, where numerous epidemics swept the colonies commencement in the 17th century and continuing into the tardily 19th century. The illness acquired widespread fatalities in the Caribbean during the heyday of slave-based sugar plantation. The replacement of native forests by sugar plantations and factories facilitated its spread in the tropical area past reducing the number of potential natural mosquito predators.The ways of yellow fever transmission was unknown until 1881, when Carlos Finlay suggested that the illness was transmitted through mosquitoes, at present known to be female mosquitoes of the species Aedes aegypti.^[62]

Cultural exchanges [edit]

Ane of the results of the movement of people between New and Old Worlds were cultural exchanges. For example, in the article "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800", Pieter Emmer makes the point that "from 1500 onward, a 'disharmonism of cultures' had begun in the Atlantic".^[63] This clash of culture involved the transfer of European values to indigenous cultures. As an example, the emergence of the concept of private property in regions where property was ofttimes viewed as communal, concepts of monogamy (although many indigenous peoples were already monogamous), the function of women and children in the social arrangement, and different concepts of labor, including slavery,^[64] although slavery was already a practice among many indigenous peoples and was widely practiced or introduced past Europeans into the Americas. Another example included the European abhorrence of human sacrifice, a religious practice amid some ethnic populations.^{[ commendation needed ]}

During the initial stages of European colonization of the Americas, Europeans encountered fence-less lands. They believed that the land was unimproved and bachelor for their taking, as they sought economical opportunity and homesteads. However, when European settlers arrived in Virginia, they encountered a fully established ethnic people, the Powhatan. The Powhatan farmers in Virginia scattered their subcontract plots inside larger cleared areas. These larger cleared areas were a communal place for growing useful plants. As the Europeans viewed fences every bit hallmarks of civilization, they ready about transforming "the land into something more suitable for themselves".^[65]

Tobacco was a New World agricultural product, originally a luxury good spread as part of the Columbian exchange. As is discussed in regard to the trans-Atlantic slave trade, the tobacco trade increased demand for complimentary labor and spread tobacco worldwide. In discussing the widespread uses of tobacco, the Spanish doc Nicolas Monardes (1493–1588) noted that "The blackness people that have gone from these parts to the Indies, have taken upward the same manner and use of tobacco that the Indians have".^[66] As Europeans traveled to other parts of the world, they took with them the practices related to tobacco. Demand for tobacco grew in the class of these cultural exchanges among peoples.^{[ commendation needed ]}

One of the well-nigh conspicuously notable areas of cultural disharmonism and substitution was that of faith, often the lead point of cultural conversion. In the Spanish and Portuguese dominions, the spread of Catholicism, steeped in a European values system, was a major objective of colonization. Europeans ofttimes pursued it via explicit policies of suppression of indigenous languages, cultures and religions. In British America, Protestant missionaries converted many members of indigenous tribes to Protestantism. The French colonies had a more outright religious mandate, equally some of the early explorers, such equally Jacques Marquette, were as well Catholic priests. In time, and given the European technological and immunological superiority which aided and secured their authorisation, ethnic religions declined in the centuries post-obit the European settlement of the Americas.

While Mapuche people did adopt the equus caballus, sheep, and wheat, the over-all scant adoption of Spanish engineering past Mapuche has been characterized every bit a ways of cultural resistance.

Co-ordinate to Caroline Dodds Pennock, in Atlantic history indigenous people are oftentimes seen as static recipients of transatlantic encounters. Merely thousands of Native Americans crossed the ocean during the sixteenth century, some past selection.^[67]

Organism examples [edit]

Post-Columbian transfers of native organisms with shut ties to humans, Late 15th to 20th century

Blazon of organism	Old Globe to New World	New World to Old World
Domesticated animals	Barbary dove cat (domestic – several wild species already present) camel (18th–20th century) cattle (Would have been used for meat, dairy, and for pulling a plow or railroad vehicle.) chicken ass duck (Old World domestic ducks are descended from the wild mallard, unlike the North American Muscovy duck) goat (the goats of the Sometime World, genus Capra, are unlike from the mountain goat of the New World, genus Oreamnos; would have become a source of meat and milk in Caribbean area especially) goose (species of New World geese existed, but farmyards also would accept wanted geese for laying eggs in improver to meat) guineafowl honey bee (European honey bee – other wild and domesticated species already present) gilt hamster equus caballus (technically reintroduced after extinction in North America) Mule koi ostrich pig pigeon quail (European and Japanese species) rabbit (domestic) sheep (Domestic only. Wild bighorn sheep do not live east of the Mississippi River and would not be discovered until later on most of the interchange was complete.) water buffalo yak zebu	alpaca American mink guinea squealer llama long-tailed chinchilla New Earth parrots (Kept as pets) Muscovy duck turkey (Mexican subspecies Meleagris gallopavo gallopavo.)
Other Animals	ring-necked pheasant mute swan peacock (Florida)	Canada goose (escaped from menageries of wealthy) ruddy duck
Cultivated plants	adzuki bean almond aloe vera anise apple apricot asparagus baobab banana (including cooking banana) barley basil beetroot black-eyed pea Brassica oleracea-derived vegetables broccoli Brussels sprouts cabbage cauliflower collard greens kale kohlrabi rapeseed breadfruit (brought from Asia to Caribbean) broad bean Cannabis (including hemp) cantaloupe carrot celery scarlet chickpea cinnamon (not merely species from Ceylon, but as well Chinese and Southeast Asia) citrus (orange, lemon, etc.) coconut (brought from Asia to Caribbean) coffee common fig (other species of Ficus genus abundant, only earliest explorers did not know of existence or edibility until later.) coriander (too known every bit cilantro) cucumber cumin eggplant (aubergine) Ellis (oil palm) fennel finger millet foxtail millet flax garlic ginger goji grape (wild species present in North America, but non wine grapes) hazelnut hops jackfruit (brought from Asia to Caribbean) kiwifruit kola nut leek lentil lettuce mace mango mangosteen melon (watermelon, cantaloupe, honeydew, etc.) millet mint Momordica charantia (bitter melon) mung bean nutmeg oat okra olive onion opium poppy oregano parsnip pea peach pear pearl millet persimmon (Asian species only) pistachio plum (Cultivated nutrient species from Asia only) pomegranate proso millet radish raspberry rice rosemary rye sage sesame sorghum soybean spinach sugarcane and carbohydrate beet tamarind taro turmeric turnip walnut (commercial varieties) wheat yam (African yam; sugariness potatoes are sometimes called "yam" in the U.S.)	açai American persimmon (ornamental) Annona glabra (alligator apple tree) Annona reticulata (custard apple) agave allspice amaranth (as grain) annatto arracacha arrowroot or Maranta arundinacea avocado blackness crimson black walnut (used for lumber and for ornamental purposes) blueberry (commercial varieties) Brazil nut Calathea allouia (leren) Canna indica (achira) capsicum (bong pepper and chili pepper) cashew cassava (manioc, tapioca, yuca) chayote cherimoya chia coca leaf cocoa bean cotton (long-staple species) cranberry (large cranberry, or bearberry species) cucurbits (many squashes and gourds) butternut squash pumpkin Hubbard squash acorn squash pattypan squash zucchini (courgette) Eryngium foetidum (culantro, Mexican coriander) Feijoa sellowiana (feijoa, pineapple guava, Brazilian guava, guavasteen) guarana guava (mutual) Helianthus (sunflower) Jerusalem artichoke jicama maize (corn) Magnolia, several species (ornamental purposes) Manilkara zapota (sapodilla) mashua Opuntia ficus-indica (prickly pear) Oxalis tuberosa (New Zealand yam) papaya Pawpaw passionfruit, fruit and flowers for gardens; multiple species. peanut pecan Phaseolus vulgaris (beans: pinto, lima, kidney, etc.) physalis (cape gooseberry) pineapple pitaya (dragon fruit) spud quinoa red oak (lumber and ornamental) rubber sassafras soursop stevia strawberry (commercial varieties) sugar-apple sugar maple sweet potato tamarillo tobacco lycopersicon esculentum tomatillo ulluco vanilla wild rice (Texas, annual and northern species) yerba mate yucca
Cultivated fungi	Agaricus bisporus (push button mushrooms, chestnut mushrooms, portobello mushrooms) cloud ear fungus enoki mushroom oyster mushroom (some varieties) Rhizopus oligosporus (tempeh) shiitake mushroom snow ear fungus truffle	huitlacoche (corn smut) oyster mushroom (some varieties)
Infectious diseases	bubonic plague chickenpox cholera diphtheria gonorrhea influenza leprosy malaria measles mumps rubella scarlet fever smallpox tuberculosis typhoid fever typhus whooping cough yaws xanthous fever	Chagas affliction pinta syphilis (disputed)

Subsequently history [edit]

Plants that arrived past land, bounding main, or air in the times before 1492 are called archaeophytes, and plants introduced to Europe after those times are chosen neophytes. Invasive species of plants and pathogens also were introduced past run a risk, including such weeds equally tumbleweeds (Salsola spp.) and wild oats (Avena fatua). Some plants introduced intentionally, such as the kudzu vine introduced in 1894 from Japan to the United States to help control soil erosion, have since been found to be invasive pests in the new surround.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Fungi have as well been transported, such as the one responsible for Dutch elm affliction, killing American elms in North American forests and cities, where many had been planted as street trees. Some of the invasive species take become serious ecosystem and economic issues later establishing in the New World environments.^{[68] [69]} A benign, although probably unintentional, introduction is Saccharomyces eubayanus, the yeast responsible for lager beer at present idea to have originated in Patagonia.^[70] Others have crossed the Atlantic to Europe and have changed the class of history. In the 1840s, Phytophthora infestans crossed the oceans, damaging the white potato crop in several European nations. In Ireland, the potato crop was totally destroyed; the Groovy Dearth of Ireland caused millions to starve to death or immigrate.^{[ citation needed ]}

In addition to these, many animals were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the world either accidentally or incidentally. These include such animals as dark-brown rats, earthworms (apparently absent from parts of the pre-Columbian New World), and zebra mussels, which arrived on ships.^[71] Escaped and feral populations of non-ethnic animals accept thrived in both the Onetime and New Worlds, often negatively impacting or displacing native species. In the New World, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses, and cattle are mutual, and the Burmese python and dark-green iguana are considered problematic in Florida. In the Old World, the Eastern gray squirrel has been particularly successful in colonising Great Britain, and populations of raccoons tin can now be establish in some regions of Germany, the Caucasus, and Japan. Fur farm escapees such as coypu and American mink have extensive populations.^{[ citation needed ]}

See also [edit]

• Arab Agricultural Revolution
• Early impact of Mesoamerican goods in Iberian society
• First contact (anthropology)
• Groovy American Interchange
• List of nutrient plants native to the Americas
• Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories
• Global silvery merchandise from the 16th to 19th centuries
• Transformation of culture

References [edit]

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3. ^ Mann, Charles C. (2011). 1493. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 286. ISBN9780307265722.
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5. ^ ^{a b} Carney, Judith (2001). Blackness Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas . United States of America: Harvard University Press. pp. 4–v.
6. ^ de Vorsey, Louis (2001). "The Tragedy of the Columbian Commutation". In McIlwraith, Thomas F.; Muller, Edward K. (eds.). Northward America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 27. Thanks to…Crosby's work, the term 'Columbian exchange' is now widely used…
7. ^ Erickson, D. 50; Smith, B. D; Clarke, A. C; Sandweiss, D. H; Tuross, N (2005). "An Asian origin for a ten,000-twelvemonth-old domesticated plant in the Americas". Proceedings of the National University of Sciences. 102 (51): 18315–20. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10218315E. doi:10.1073/pnas.0509279102. PMC1311910. PMID 16352716.
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Further reading [edit]

• The Columbian Exchange: Plants, Animals, and Disease between the One-time and New Worlds past Alfred W. Crosby (2009)
• 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus past Charles C. Isle of man (2006)
• Indian Givers: How the Indians of the Americas Transformed the World by Jack Weatherford (2010)

External links [edit]

• Worlds Together, Worlds Apart by Jeremy Adelman, Stephen Aron, Stephen Kotkin, et al.
• Foods that Changed the Earth past Steven R. Rex from the Wayback Car
• The Columbian Substitution video, study guide, assay, and didactics guide

taylortiect1945.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbian_exchange